Heterogeneous valuation and eco-efficiency of Laser Land Leveling in paddy production in the Mekong Delta

For the selection of the primary data sample, the cluster sampling technique was employed. Particularly, An Giang and Kien Giang provinces were selected as the sites for this empirical study due to their prominence in paddy cultivation, encompassing the largest cultivation areas among the 13 provinces of the Mekong Delta. In addition, An Giang’s long-established rice farming tradition has led to a landscape characterized by smaller, carefully leveled fields, while Kien Giang, where paddy farming has been adopted more recently, is marked by larger fields shaped through ongoing land reforms. This contrast highlights the variation in soil types and intensive cropping systems, differences in freshwater availability, the utilization of technology, and irrigation management—whether managed individually or cooperatively (GSO, 2023). These provinces also demonstrate variations in topographical flatness, which acts as an indicator of the suitability for technology implementation, as well as in agricultural extension programs. These are important factors in the analysis of water efficiency resulting from the LLL technology adoption. Two communes were selected in each province in compliance with two distinct criteria. Firstly, at the time of the study in 2020, the LLL technology had not been broadly adopted as a common practice in the paddy field. Secondly, a significant proportion of farmers own plots larger than 1000 m2, the minimum size necessary for the LLL service implementation. For each commune, 75 farmers were randomly chosen in accordance with two previously defined criteria. We conducted seminars to introduce LLL technology. From an attendee list of approximately 100 farmers per commune, we selected participants on a rotating basis, choosing three for every one omitted. A total of 303 households, encompassing 764 paddy fields, were interviewed to conduct a BDM auction to select 201 winning plots based on a predetermined price. Finally, 97 plots were randomly allocated to either the treatment or control group via a lottery system. These 97 plots were investigated for their irrigation management, including irrigation water volumes, net water use, drainage practices, input applications, and other relevant data during the three winter–spring crops in 2020, 2021, and 2022. Visa mindre..